Autism is the general term for a spectrum of developmental disorders that begin in early childhood. People with this disorder may have difficulty socializing, understanding emotional cues, or functioning in daily life. People with autism are not, as was once thought, intellectually impaired. In fact, many children and adults with autistic disorder show remarkably high intelligence in a variety of areas. Despite years of research, scientists are still not able to explain what causes autism, much less develop preventative measures or cures. The best approaches we have for helping those with autism are therapy and behavioral counseling. The goal of such therapy is to keep behavioral symptoms under control and improve the overall quality of life.

Children with autism show different signs and symptoms. Some are completely withdrawn, seemingly trapped in their own consciousness. Others are very outgoing but oblivious to the social or emotional needs of those around them. Among all behavioral symptoms, aggression towards oneself and others is the most troubling. In two controlled trials, the antipsychotic medication Abilify (aripiprazole) was shown to significantly reduce aggressive outbursts and mood variability in children aged 6 to 17 years.

In most instances, Abilify represents a good choice for modifying aggressive behavior. Adverse side effects reported from the trials included sedation, fatigue, and vomiting. These side effects typically occurred in the first week or two of taking the medication and faded with time. About 10% of patients in the trials discontinued Abilify because of adverse effects, compared with 7% for placebo. In the long term, the most commonly observed side effect was weight gain, which also plateaued after several weeks. Physical activity and a well-managed diet may offset some of this weight gain. In a 52-week trial, the effectiveness of Abilify at reducing irritability appeared unchanged. This finding is encouraging, as the benefits of some psychotropic drugs have been shown to diminish after prolonged use.

Stabilizing the emotional states of children with autism is an important goal for therapists and parents. When the child is calm and responsive, talk therapy and other interactive activities can be more meaningful and effective. Aggressive outbursts and irritability lead to a poor quality of life for the child with autism. Although a cure may still be a long way off, Abilify has proven that it can help improve quality of life for autistic children who exhibit anger and aggression toward themselves and others.

References
Curran, M. P. (2011). Aripiprazole in the treatment of irritability associated with autistic disorder in pediatric patients. Pediatric Drugs, 13 (3), 197-204.

With football season nearing end, emotionally charged teen boys, who are taught how to use aggression on the field, will no longer be able to use that physical outlet for their youthful frustrations. Because of the high level of violence in the sport, experts have wondered if these teens, who are encouraged to use coercion, intimidation, and other aggressive tactics during play, are more likely to engage in bullying behaviors off the field than their nonathlete peers. Nearly half of teens today report that they have been either the victim or perpetrator of bullying. And although football does not endorse bullying, players are encouraged to aspire to masculine norms and conformity. Therefore, researchers have asked, do these factors make the players more vulnerable to bullying behaviors?

To answer this question, Jesse A. Steinfeldt of the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology at Indiana University-Bloomington led a study involving 206 high school football players and looked at peer relationships, masculine conformity, bullying beliefs, and male role models. The results revealed that the football players would only accept or encourage bullying behavior if their peers did. Additionally, the players who conformed the most to masculine norms were among the most likely to bully, regardless of peer influence. Adhering and aspiring to masculine norms has been shown to negatively influence psychological well-being and can increase one’s risk for depression, sexual aggression, substance abuse, and low self-worth.

However, Steinfeldt discovered the highest risk factor for accepting bullying behaviors was having a male role model who also endorsed bullying. Specifically, the most influential male in the boys’ lives, whether it was a coach, uncle, father, or big brother, was the strongest indicator of bullying behavior. This discovery has significant implications for interventions and youth programs that target bullying. Steinfeldt said, “Thus, psychologists working with adolescent football players may want to consider bullying within the broader context, particularly the ways that traditional masculine norms are conveyed by peers and influential males within the unique context of football.” Steinfeldt also suggested that psychologists who work with teen football players might consider asking coaches and fathers to participate in the design and delivery of interventions in order to more powerfully influence the teens.

Reference:
Steinfeldt, J. A., Vaughan, E. L., LaFollette, J. R., & Steinfeldt, M. C. (2012, January 23). Bullying Among Adolescent Football Players: Role of Masculinity and Moral Atmosphere. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0026645

Value affirmations, also known as self-affirmations, are positive assessments of one’s abilities, traits, and personality qualities. Value affirmations can increase self-esteem, self-worth, and fulfillment of one’s needs. When an individual recognizes their own worth and has a strong sense of identity and autonomy, they are more willing to help others meet their needs. This relationship between self-worth and prosocial behaviors has been examined in the past, but until now, few studies have looked at the effect of value affirmations on prosocial attitudes in adolescents. Sander Thomaes of the Department of Psychology at Utrecht University in the Netherlands recently conducted a study that sought to determine if subtle value affirmations could have a short-term and long-term positive effect on adolescents’ prosocial behaviors and attitudes during the crucial years of identity formation.

The participants were required to write down things that they felt were positive attributes about themselves. They were instructed to identify traits or skills they had and briefly write about them. Six weeks later, the teens were again required to acknowledge their positive traits during a booster exercise. Three months after the first writing exercise, the researchers noticed that the participants who practiced the subtle value affirmations were more inclined to exhibit prosocial behaviors than the participants in the control group. The effect was most noticeable among teens who had exhibited antisocial behaviors prior to the exercise. Thomaes believes that the results occurred for several reasons. First, teens with a strong sense of identity are not subject to the stress and pressure of trying to assimilate to others. Also, the students participated in the exercise as they transitioned into secondary school. This critical time in relationship formation was positively, rather than negatively, influenced by the feelings of love and fulfillment gained from the writing exercise. Thomaes added, “In summary, the practical value of the present research is that it identified value affirmations as a promising intervention technique, and illustrated the possibility of helping students to adopt a more prosocial orientation by allowing them to reflect on their personal values—by providing them a stronger sense of who they are.”

Reference:
Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., De Castro, B. O., Reijntjes, A. Arousing “Gentle Passions” in Young Adolescents: Sustained Experimental Effects of Value Affirmations on Prosocial Feelings and Behaviors. Developmental Psychology 48.1 (2012): 103-10. Print.

MSca child plant MH900430999It is not a surprise that we have heard much stirring in the last several years about the importance of empathy and its role in everything from attachment, to neural development, to world positivity. There is an empathy shortage in the world, and we are seeing the far-reaching effects. Bullying. Violence. Insensitivity. Selfishness. In practice, we often see the damage done with children who are traumatized because of early life experiences characterized by a lack of empathy. Abuse, neglect, emotional bankruptcy, painful attachments and a violation of trust all contribute to a child’s ability or disruption in naturally cultivating this inherent trait.

As play therapists, we are placed in a critical position to help do something about this. But how do we teach empathy to traumatized children? Because of the unique link between trust and empathy, how do we help them develop a sense of empathy for others without worry that trust will be broken? Aside from the basic child-centered approach that demands an empathic approach from the therapist, we can further this in tangible ways to make it come alive.

First, remember the important points about emotional intelligence, moral development, and capacity for empathy:

Beyond that,  I call my approach “Kindfull” Play, and it looks something like this:

Modeling – It sounds basic, but remember that not only are we as therapists modeling empathy toward the child, but also toward the world in general. Seize opportunities to show kindness – from the stray bug that wanders into the room, to the dolls they are playing with, to a character in a sandtray. Point out feelings and ask children to recognize them in others. You are demonstrating that others can be trusted.

Sensory words and Practices – Remember that empathy is not only a thought or feeling alone; it is an Experience. It is the ability to not only think, but feel kindness, compassion, and concern for another’s situation or being. With that in mind, help the child FEEL this by using sensory words and language to engage that part of their brains. Use poetry and storytelling to enhance this play. Favorite tip:  Present your client with a list of feeling words and ask them to create a poem or write a story based on the words. For older children/teens, ask them to pick a song that instills an empathic feeling. Review the lyrics together and how they are affected by it.

Dolls, Puppets and Faces! – Empathy can be demonstrated most easily through facial expressions. Play facial expression games, faces flash cards, and ask them to create a show for others to guess Feeling Faces. Favorite tip:  Face Focus x 3 – Ask a child to choose a feeling, draw the face of the feeling, and list three possible reasons the face feels that way. Then ask them to list three ways to helpfully respond with kindness and compassion.

Bibliotherapy – Stock your playroom with terrific books on empathy and caring. Use these frequently and strengthen this activity by then engaging your client in creative crafts related to each story. Favorite tip:  Add the titles ‘Understand and Care,’ and ‘Don’t Laugh At Me’ to your collections. Also, see http://booksthathealkids.blogspot.com/ for one of the most comprehensive bibliotherapy resources available for working with children.

Nature Niceness – Bring nature play into your sessions, as it is a resource rich in opportunities for practicing kindness. Introduce them to every form of life and teach respect for it. Engage their senses on an instinctual level with kind words. Let them marvel over a blade of grass, and delight in the ant walking busily over the dirt. Touch the tree bark and notice how hard, rough, or smooth it is. Do not pick flowers, but let the growing petals brush over their skin. How soft is it? What does it smell like?  Favorite tip:  One of my favorite activities is to go on a nature walk with a child and find a special rock. Create a pet rock and design a Care List outlining what the rock needs and how it will feel if it doesn’t receive this.

Caregiver Compassion – Incorporate caregivers as empathy teachers! This is a critical point in order to help empathy grow outside of your sessions. Here, you will want to incorporate elements of filial play within your sessions and also teach parents how to continue this at home so that empathy forms where it will be most important – with their caregivers. Teach parents how to be emotionally in tune by practicing the same kinds of empathy building play you do in your sessions. Favorite tip: Have them plant a seed of any sort together, and nurture it to life. Keep a diary of how the plant feels when it receives water, when its leaves unfurl, or when sunshine warms the soil.

Share Your Self – End every session with your experience and expression of empathy toward what they have completed and accomplished. Favorite tip:  Also ask them to summarize and share, choosing one way they will apply this until the next time they see you.

My experience has taught me that there is a clear link between empathy, resilience,  and post traumatic growth. Higher levels of empathy for self and others appear to strengthen a child’s ability to heal and find trust in the world again. When we cultivate empathy in the play therapy room, not only is a child then more able to experience empathy for others, but he can experience it for himself and translate it into self-compassion and gentleness. Because empathy itself is an experience, play and play therapy are the perfect places to integrate this important healing step. In so doing, we will help set their personal stages for a lifetime of resilience, aid in moral development and values clarification, and strengthen the cycle of kindness for generations ahead. Wishing you Kindness in all things!

Related Articles:
Play is Important for Children & Their Parents
The Spirit of a Play Therapist
Moving Out From the Shadow of Trauma

Children under severe psychological duress sometimes develop an involuntary reflex that causes them to swallow large volumes of air. Known as pathologic childhood aerophagia (PCA), this condition leads to a variety of stomach and intestinal problems if left untreated. Bowel distention, malabsorption of nutrients, and abdominal cramping are all potential symptoms of long-term PCA. Treatment of PCA usually consists of supportive counseling and reassurance, along with an attempt to identify and manage sources of stress and worry. Attending physicians may also prescribe anti-anxiety drugs on a case-by-case basis when the first line of treatment fails. Researchers in Korea performed a small-scale test to determine whether the anti-anxiety drug Klonopin (clonazepam) might be safe and effective in treating PCA.

Twenty-two children at a Korean clinic were enrolled in the PCA management study. Fifteen received Klonopin, and the other seven received counseling alone. Parents provided informed consent on behalf of their children, and there was no placebo-controlled group for comparison. Video observation of the children’s esophagus confirmed that abdominal symptoms were a result of PCA and not another condition. Throughout the study, regular observation with a videoscopic device helped clinicians determine the state of the child’s PCA. Children and parents also self-reported PCA symptoms and any potential medication side effects throughout the study.

Researchers dispensed Klonopin to the children at doses far below the normally therapeutic amounts. However, even at these low doses, empirical video evidence confirmed that the muscles controlling the involuntary swallowing action relaxed quickly after administration. The effective dosage of Klonopin in the study was low enough that long-term maintenance treatment presented relatively little risk. Children treated with Klonopin experienced remission of their PCA at a rate of 67%, compared with only 15% for children treated only with reassurance. In the absence of follow-up treatment, however, the likelihood of relapse was fairly high. A combination approach that incorporates both pharmaceutical and behavioral treatments offers the most comprehensive solution.

Except in cases of mental retardation, PCA is nearly always a symptom of psychological distress. Although Klonopin and similar psychotropic medications offer relief from the condition, cognitive therapy is important for maintaining remission and enhancing the individual’s self-confidence and coping mechanisms.

References

  1. PubMed Health [Internet]. (n.d.). Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine. Clonazepam. Retrieved April 4, 2012, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0000635/
  2. Hwang, J., Kim, J. S., Ahn, B. H., Jung, C., Lee, Y. H., Kam, S. (2007). Clonazepam treatment of pathologic childhood aerophagia with psychological stresses. Journal of Korean Medical Science, 22, 205-208.

Depression and anxiety are among the most common mood problems, regardless of age or demographics. Children and adolescents experience anxiety and depression at a significant rate, although treatment for this population brings some complicating factors. The most frequently prescribed antidepressant medications incur a small but real risk of suicide or suicidal thoughts in young people. Known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), this class of antidepressants is otherwise well regarded for both safety and effectiveness. When parents and physicians are cautious and attentive, SSRIs can be prescribed to children with a fair degree of safety. However, other side effects appear in younger patients that do not seem to affect adults. Hyperactivity, for example, is one such side effect of SSRIs that is confined to children and adolescent patients.

A review of previous studies revealed that so-called “activation events” might be extremely common in children taking certain antidepressants. Activation events are defined by abnormal energy, hyperactivity, and disinhibition. None of these effects reaches the level of mania, however, and sometimes it’s difficult to distinguish between “normal” activity levels and hyperactivity in young children. In a clinical trial of Luvox (fluvoxamine) prescribed to children, nearly 50% of participants experienced an activation event. Age appeared to be a significant factor—younger children were more likely to experience these side effects. Blood tests also showed that children who experienced activation events had higher concentrations of Luvox in their blood, despite lowering the dosage to mitigate side effects. This suggests that the medication is metabolized differently depending on the individual.

In the case of Luvox, hyperactivity as a side effect is not typically serious enough to require a change of medication. If the side effect is accompanied by self-injurious behavior, however, then a medication change is likely the best solution. Insomnia and aggressiveness are also signs of mania beyond simple hyperactivity. In a review of published work, researchers determined that demographic or family characteristics were not predictive of activation side effects. In addition, these side effects typically diminished and did not recur once the dosage was lowered.

In summary, because of differences in metabolism and physiology, children and adolescents react differently to medications. With Luvox and other antidepressants, there is a strong possibility of hyperactive or disinhibited behavior but not to the point of mania. Physicians and parents should always monitor children taking antidepressants for signs of worsening symptoms or suicidal tendencies. The side effect of hyperactivity by itself is generally not considered to be a cause for concern.

References

  1. PubMed Health [Internet]. (n.d.). Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine. Fluvoxamine. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved April 4, 2012, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0000955/
  2. Reinblatt, S.P., dos Reis, S., Walkup, J.T., Riddle, M.A. (2009). Activation adverse events induced by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluvoxamine in children and adolescents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 19(2), 119-126.

Turning points are life experiences that permanently change the course of one’s life. The death of a parent, a divorce, or even a geographical move are all examples of turning points that can have a positive or negative affect on an individual. “The most defining characteristic of a turning point, however, remains that the event is perceived as significant or life-changing to the individual,” said Royette Tavernier of the Department of Psychology at Brock University, St. Catharines in Canada, and author of a recent study. How individuals process those turning points is referred to as meaning-making and is theorized to affect well-being. “The purpose of this study was to examine whether meaning-making within turning point narratives, as well as the timing of these turning points, would be associated with psychological wellbeing among a sample of Grade 12 high school adolescents,” said Tavernier.

For their study, Tavernier and a team of colleagues analyzed the life stories of 418 12th grade students, half of whom had experienced a significant turning point in their lives. All of the students had been previously assessed for well-being while in the 9th grade, as part of another ongoing study. Tavernier discovered that although the earlier assessment of well-being did not influence meaning-making in 12th grade, those who described meaning-making as part of their turning point narrative had much higher levels of well-being than the students who did not describe using meaning-making strategies in their life stories.

“This important finding suggests that the significant positive association between meaning-making and psychological well-being was not necessarily a function of preexisting differences on this variable, prior to adolescents’ turning point experiences but instead may be related to the meaning-making process.” Tavernier added, “In conclusion, adolescents, counselors, parents, and other sources of support can benefit from the knowledge that navigating life’s unpredictable paths is not necessarily solely associated with negative affect. Although much more research in this area is needed, these findings provide some support for the possibility that when adolescents engage in a more intimate exploration of their life experiences—particularly those that cause significant change—positive consequences can emerge at the personal and relational level.”

Reference:
Tavernier, R., & Willoughby, T. (2011, November 28). Adolescent Turning Points: The Association Between Meaning-Making and Psychological Well-Being. Developmental Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0026326

GoodTherapy | When Girls Are BulliesDo you remember your first bully—the girl who called you fat, mocked your choice in clothes, or spread false rumors about you? Of course you do. It’s like a first kiss, a first drink, the first time you drove a car. Only this is a memory you wish you could forget. You may not recall her exact words, but you remember the girl, the time, the place. Did you ever wonder why she did it, what provoked her meanness, how she got to wield so much power?

Bullying is an intentional act of aggression in which the perpetrator belittles, controls, intimidates or harms another person. Attacks are often unprovoked, and exploit an individual’s vulnerabilities or weakness. Although male bullying is typically straightforward, often involving physical aggression or blatantly hostile taunts, female bullying may be more subtle, and therefore, harder to detect. For girls, bullying can be a means of gaining popularity, jockeying for power among peers, or asserting control. Since it is more covert, teachers and parents may overlook clues, or assume the behavior is just a normal part of social interactions.

Some forms that bullying can take include:

So, why do girls resort to bullying? Reasons vary, but usually include a need for control, attention, and approval, or an outlet for anger. Girls who bully may appear threatening and commit hurtful acts, but they often harbor underlying insecurities that fuel their behaviors. Some feel lonely, inadequate, and fearful, and bully to feel powerful or hide their insecurity. Some attack first before they are attacked by others. Some are angry about problems at home and lash out at peers. Occasionally, girls who bully learn these behaviors at home due to family members who are abusive or because of a hostile neighborhood environment. Popularity is no safeguard, since often the girls who bully are those who seem to have it all. Frequently, the pretty, popular, athletic girls are the ringleaders who foster a culture of bullying, even though they may have already acquired power in the social hierarchies of their schools.

The process of bullying can develop slowly over time. Girls who are popular and charismatic may attract others into their circle of friends and make them feel special. They may then try to control these girls, expect favors, or demand that the new girls bully others as well. By controlling a group of peers, bullies achieve power in numbers and go on to terrorize teens they believe are a threat. Individual victims can be targeted at random, but are often selected because of jealousy, noticeable differences, refusal to conform to the group, or a weakness that can be exploited. Bullying also can be sparked by a sudden turn of events in a friendship, where the bully feels threatened and angry, and decides that she must retaliate.

While punches are not thrown, bullying can leave a devastating mark on its victim and engender long-lasting pain and suffering. Girls are particularly vulnerable because of how much they value friendships. Victims can become depressed, anxious, insecure, and feel they are to blame. Obsessive preoccupation with perceived flaws, physical appearance, conformity, and adhering to the bully’s rules of conduct can follow. Conversely, some girls who are bullied become isolated, withdrawn, and even drop out of school. In rare instances, victims can become so depressed and hopeless that they consider suicide as their only option.

Victims often remain silent due to embarrassment, self-blame, or fear of retaliation, so incidents of bullying may go unnoticed. Investigate whether bullying is occurring if your loved one, friend, or student is showing any of the following signs: mood swings, sudden withdrawal from friends, refusal to attend school or social events, sleep problems, academic difficulties, physical complaints, weight loss or gain, or frequent crying.

If you suspect that someone you know is being bullied, it is important to offer support. Reassure the victim that the bullying will end eventually, and that you will help her identify strategies for addressing the problem. One size does not fit all, so a variety of strategies and interventions should be considered depending on the specific situation. Useful websites with anti-bullying tips are listed below. Sometimes getting advice from a therapist or guidance counselor can help. Girls who bully also benefit from counseling, where they can learn to take responsibility for their behaviors and identify appropriate outlets for their anger and need for control.

Prevention is essential, and needs to come from both the family and community. Parents need to discuss bullying with their children, even before it occurs. Teaching girls how to respond to potentially difficult situations, before a problem develops, is critical. Helping young girls improve their self-esteem by developing strong academic, athletic or extracurricular interests, and finding friends who share similar interests (so that social standing is not as critical), may minimize their vulnerability to falling victim. Schools should offer anti-bullying initiatives, including training for staff, programs for students, and counseling services when necessary. When parents, schools, and the community promote an environment where bullying is unacceptable, perhaps fewer girls (and boys) will have to encounter that first bully.

Anti-Bullying Resources and Information:

 

Being the target of bullying can cause a child to internalize and experience a decrease in self-worth. Many children who are victims of bullying become isolated and withdrawn, and often have a limited social circle of friends. “Because many of the correlates and predictors of peer victimization are common in children with ADHD, it is not surprising that children with ADHD are at elevated risk for peer victimization,” said Stephanie L. Cardoos of the Department of Psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. “Although more is known about risk factors for victimization than about protective factors, one well-established protective factor for those at risk of victimization is friendship.” Cardoos and her colleague Stephen P. Hinshaw recently conducted a study to determine what affect friendship would have on bullying. “The overall purpose is to understand factors that may both predict and protect  against peer victimization in girls with ADHD, with a particular focus on friendship as a protective factor,” said Cardoos.

The researchers examined data from 228 girls between the ages of 6 and 12, half of whom had ADHD. The girls were evaluated by counselors at several points during a five week summer camp program and the girls listed who they considered to be their friends and which girls they did and did not like. The team found that all of the girls who were bullied exhibited similar symptoms, regardless of whether they had ADHD or not. “Our core finding was that the presence of a mutual friendship moderated the association between each behavioral risk factor and victimization, such that the presence of at least one friend reduced risk of victimization,” said Cardoos. “The current findings suggest that even for those who may be at elevated risk for deleterious peer effects, such as girls with ADHD, peers can play an important protective role.” She added, “If friends protect by intervening directly in challenging peer situations, it will be important for at-risk children to develop a friend in their natural peer group. In contrast, if friends are most important in increasing self-esteem, interventions outside of the natural peer group may be equally protective.”

Reference:
Cardoos, Stephanie L., and Stephen P. Hinshaw. “Friendship as Protection from Peer Victimization for Girls with and without ADHD.” Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 39.3 (2011): 1035-045. Print.

GoodTherapy | How Parents Make it Difficult for Children to Love Their Other ParentThere are many ways one parent can influence how children perceive their other parent. This is often a positive experience for children, as they learn to appreciate both of their parents as individuals. Other times—especially during a divorce—this is a negative experience, making it difficult for children to manage their feelings of loyalty and have loving relationships with both parents.

It is sometimes the case that one parent is truly a danger and should not have access to the children as determined by a court of law. However, alienating behaviors often occur not because of fear of danger to children, but because of conflict between parents due to hurt feelings, imagined offenses, actual offenses, infidelities, feelings of abandonment, and more. There are various levels of alienating behaviors, all of which impact children, but some of these behaviors are more damaging than others.

Sometimes one parent might say something negative to other other parent in front of the children. Usually, they will quickly regret the statement and will try to mitigate the inappropriateness in an effort to minimize damage to the child and their relationship to the other parent. When a child already has a difficult relationship with the other parent, this effort to talk to the child about it is very important.
Behaviors can step up from there, from parents who, while they might regret their outbursts, do not believe it is their job to make sure there is a good relationship between the children and the other parent; to parents who are determined that there is no relationship possible. Parents may see this as a battle, thinking they are protecting their children, when in fact children tend to be the “casualties of war” between the warring parties.

Here are some examples of alienating behaviors, from more benign to more egregious:

This is clearly not an exhaustive list. Hopefully, you will not find yourself represented in any of them.

Shyness is a behavior that can cause problems for children and adults. But adolescents, who experience elevated emotional turmoil, are more vulnerable to the symptoms of extreme shyness. “Although they might be easy to overlook, they probably experience much private unhappiness, as adolescent shy behavior is linked to loneliness, having fewer friends, and other internalizing problems such as anxiety, low self-worth, depression, social phobia, and eating disorders among women,” said Neira van Zalk of the Center for Developmental Research at Orebro University in Sweden. Shyness has also been shown to cause stress in social situations, leading to social anxiety that can result in negative thoughts, impaired job performance and general dysfunction. These symptoms can be caused by a number of factors, but recently, researchers have begun to examine how parenting styles influence the development of shyness in children. “As a number of reviews show, different forms of socially fearful behaviors, such as shyness, behavioral inhibition, social anxiety, social withdrawal, and reticence, are associated in young children with two forms of parental psychological control: intrusive control and criticism or rejection,” said van Zalk. Parents who are over-controlling, although their intentions are good, may shield their children from stressful life situations, thus prohibiting their ability to develop coping skills and self-regulation. Another factor linked to childhood shyness is the amount of warmth exhibited by parents. Studies suggest that children who receive praise and warmth experience less anxiety, stress and loneliness than children who receive little parental warmth.

Van Zalk and a team of researchers analyzed data collected from several waves of a larger study conducted on Swedish adolescents. The teens were interviewed for symptoms of anxiety and shyness, and reported how they perceived the parenting they received. “In this study,” said van Zalk, “We found that the more shy adolescents were, the more intrusively controlling, rejecting, and less emotionally warm they perceived their parents to be over time. There was also some evidence that the more youths perceived parents as intrusively controlling, the more their shyness increased over time.” Van Zalk added that the teens with the most severe shyness received the least parental warmth. “Why would shyness elicit these behaviors from parents? One possible explanation is that parents mistakenly see the adolescent’s social isolation as intentional and that they tend to do this more as youths age,” said van Zalk. “Their lack of warmth and rejection might reflect frustration or concern that is not expressed properly. Another possibility is that some correlate of shyness helps to explain parents’ critical, rejecting reactions.” Van Zalk added, “Maybe parents whose children show shy behavior can help by being aware of their children’s oversensitivity and their own responses to their children.”

Reference:
Van Zalk, Nejra, and Margaret Kerr. “Shy Adolescents’ Perceptions of Parents’ Psychological Control and Emotional Warmth: Examining Bidirectional Links.” Merill-Palmer Quarterly 57.4 (2011): 375-401. Print.

When a child experiences the death of a parent, the emotional trauma can be devastating. But until recently, few studies have examined the impact of this type of loss relative to the age of the child and the quality of parenting that the child received after the loss. In her study, Angela Nickerson, of the Massachusetts Veterans Epidemiology Research and Information Center at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, sought to determine how this dynamic affected these children across their life span. “As the life span progresses and the individual reaches adulthood, the psychological and interpersonal consequences of this disturbance may manifest in long-term mental health problems,” said Nickerson. “There is strong evidence that aspects of the family environment, such as quality of parental care and relationship with the surviving parent, are important in affecting long-term psychological reactions following parental loss.”

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For her study, Nickerson and her colleagues analyzed data from 2,823 adults who had all experienced the death of a parent during childhood. They used the World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview to assess psychological impairment, parental care, and other factors that could contribute to difficulties later in life. They found that the younger a child was at the time of the loss, the more likely they were to develop mental health problems, including anxiety, mood, or substance abuse issues. The study also revealed that family conditions after the death played a significant role. “While the current study focused on the impact of adverse parenting practices on psychological distress, it is possible that positive family relationships and good parenting practices may act as a protective factor against psychopathology following the loss of a parent,” said Nickerson. She added, “These findings have important implications for theoretical conceptualizations of psychological reactions following the loss of a parent across the life span.”

Reference:
Nickerson, A., Bryant, R. A., Aderka, I. M., Hinton, D. E., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011, October 17). The Impacts of Parental Loss and Adverse Parenting on Mental Health: Findings From the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0025695

Important Notice

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