Perceptions of safety affect a person’s psychological state. If someone feels threatened or fearful, they may have increased levels of anxiety. If someone feels safe and protected, they may have high levels of self-confidence and feel more independent than someone that feels unsafe. The community in which a person lives can have a large impact on their mental well-being. People who live in high-crime, low-income neighborhoods are at increased risk for many negative outcomes, including drug abuse, relationship problems, violence, unwanted pregnancy, and depression. In fact, existing research has demonstrated a clear link between depression or anxiety and the environment in which a person resides. In particular, people living in communities in which they feel unsafe are more likely to have poor mental health outcomes than those in safer communities.

Until now, no study has looked at contributing factors that could increase or potentially protect individuals in unsafe neighborhoods from anxiety or depression. To accomplish this, Jaime Booth of the School of Social Work at Arizona State University led a study that examined isolation, powerlessness, and mistrust as predictors of feeling unsafe or safe in a sample of 4,196 participants. The results revealed that the more unsafe someone thought their neighborhood was, the worse they fared psychologically. Lack of safety was directly related to increased distress.

When Booth looked at the three secondary factors, the findings suggested that the distress from feeling unsafe could be enhanced or diminished. All three factors of powerlessness, mistrust, and isolation directly increased feelings of psychological stress. However, when participants reported high levels of trust, social support, or empowerment, they had lower levels of psychological stress. This suggests that increasing these domains in high risk individuals could lessen their feelings of helplessness, regardless of how safe their neighborhood is. “Understanding specific neighborhood factors that impact mental health enabled us to design more effective interventions and is crucial to addressing mental health disparities,” said Booth. The results of this study are one more in the continual pursuit of that goal.

Reference:
Booth, Jaime, Stephanie L. Ayers, and Flavio F. Marsiglia. Perceived neighborhood safety and psychological distress: Exploring protective factors. Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare 39.4 (2012): 137-56. Print.

Woman sits thinking while man is in bedThe new movie This is 40 has a lot of people talking. It is not only crass and funny, but also controversial. The two main characters in the movie reveal that they have secretly fantasized about killing each other. The wife admits to her husband that she has thought about poisoning him with a cupcake. The husband, on the other hand, tells his wife that he had contemplated putting her through a wood chipper. And as they share their morbid fantasies, the married lovers lie in bed looking relaxed and playful. Their fantasies, detailed in the warm light of their bedroom and the safety of a loving relationship, are as far from threatening as they could be. But what does it say about their relationship that they actually do have fantasies like this?

According to Benjamin Karney, a psychology professor at the University of California in Los Angeles, people who fantasize about killing their spouse, or about being a widow or widower, may do so because it allows them to escape taking blame for the failure of the marriage. They may think of it as an escape from a difficult marriage, but an escape without blame. It is not clear how many married couples have these types of fantasies. Rarely do you hear a spouse ask their husband or wife, “Do you ever think of killing me?”  But it doesn’t mean it never happens. Violence of any kind, including intimate partner violence, is not something to joke about. Rates of partner homicide are startlingly high. But the movie does show that communication styles can say a lot about a relationship, even when that communication is murderous.

Howard Markman, a psychology professor and co-director of the Center for Marital and Family Studies at the University of Denver, said that when the stars of the movie had their gruesome conversation, they were playful and intimate with each other. In fact, the whole topic of murder began with the wife wanting to discuss their conflicts. The husband, who was anxious and worried that another conflict would erupt, chose to use humor as a way to broach the subject. According to Markman, this type of strategy, even without the wood chipper or poison cupcake, can indicate a successful relationship.  “They still need to talk about her initial question, but this is a great model for couples,” said Markman. “It starts out negative, but then turns positive.” The movie is raising a few eyebrows; that’s for sure. But it also shows us that there is no one model for a successful marriage.

Reference:
Coe, Alexis. The truth of ‘This Is 40’: It’s actually not weird to want your spouse to die. (n.d.): n. pag. The Atlantic. 20 Dec. 2012. Web. 20 Dec. 2012. http://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2012/12/the-truth-of-this-is-40-its-actually-not-weird-to-want-your-spouse-to-die/266479/

Most women might like to believe that men fight to win their affections. However, the aggression men display toward one another often has little or nothing to do with the woman in question. According to a recent study led by Sarah E. Ainsworth of the Department of Psychology at Florida State University, men are more inclined to engage in violence to exhibit social dominance. Research has theorized that the desire for procreation motivates men to use certain behaviors to attract women. Less is known about the factors that prompt men to behave aggressively when they are faced with competition for a woman. Violence is a serious problem within intimate relationships. In social settings, violence can occur not just between two partners, but between two adversaries. Understanding why men become aggressive toward one another when they are in pursuit of a woman could help researchers design interventions and prevention strategies that target the root of the aggression.

In her study, Ainsworth enlisted male and female participants and conducted an experiment in which the men competed against other men or other women in a mating objective, and were instructed to deliver aggressive noise blasts in order to win. Another experiment gave the men an opportunity to assert dominance and control over their male rivals through nonviolent means. Ainsworth found that the men displayed more aggression—louder noise blasts—to the male adversaries than the female adversaries. In fact, when pitted against a female, the men did not show any signs of aggression. Similarly, when the men were given a method of asserting dominance over their male rivals without aggression, they chose the nonaggressive approach.

Ainsworth believes these results are clinically significant. Although the men in this study varied in age, she believes these findings demonstrate one of the causes of violence, particularly in younger men more vulnerable to impulsive behavior. “In tying male violence to its more ultimate motivational roots, the current research provides a basis for understanding—and reducing—many seemingly irrational acts of violence,” Ainsworth said. Having insight into these causes can help with the formation of treatments for violent behavior and can help men develop the skills necessary to seek out alternate methods of achieving a sense of social dominance over rivals without the use of aggressive tactics.

Reference:
Ainsworth, Sarah E., and Jon K. Maner. Sex begets violence: Mating motives, social dominance, and physical aggression in men. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 103.5 (2012): 819-29. Print.

Yelling sports fan with face paint

Sports generally are viewed as harmless pursuits, a source of social interaction and bonding, exercise, and stress relief. But in recent years, highly publicized incidents of fan violence have raised concerns about the culture surrounding sports. The vicious 2011 beating attack on Bryan Stow at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles is just one such example. Alcohol-fueled fights and skirmishes are increasingly common at all levels of competition, from playgrounds to professional leagues. Most people who have attended a sporting event have witnessed at least one example of an out-of-control fan.

What’s behind this surge in violence? The problem may not be the nature of sports themselves, but rather the way society treats sports in conjunction with personal factors. A closer look at some factors that may contribute to fan violence:

Overidentification

For many sports fans, their teams of choice become a proxy for their own identities. Overidentifying personally with a favorite team may be a contributing factor to sports violence. A person who watches a favorite team lose, or witnesses an unfavorable referee call, may behave as if he or she has personally suffered. The advent of Facebook and other social media, as well as message boards and other gathering places for fans, may make it difficult to disengage from favorite teams or let go of bad memories. These platforms also provide more access to inflammatory views from rival teams’ fans, fueling deep feelings of loyalty, protectiveness, and anger that boil to the surface amid the emotional current of a live game.

Alcohol

Alcohol plays a significant role in many fan altercations. At National Football League games in 2011, more than 7,000 fans were ejected for inappropriate or violent behavior. Some fans spend all morning and afternoon tailgating and drinking with friends before watching the event and then celebrating—or grieving—afterward. People often are intoxicated before even entering a venue. The feelings of deep loyalty and anger that many fans feel can be exacerbated by alcohol consumption.

Hypermasculine Culture

Despite years of progress toward gender equality, many men feel pressured to meet expectations of traditionally masculine behavior. Sports can be a significant platform for masculine identity, and people who identify with hypermasculine culture may be more likely to attend sports events. Combined with adrenaline, overidentification, and ready access to fans with opposing allegiances, some men may be inclined to be violent when exposed to triggers. Likewise, women in hypermasculine environments that promote disrespectful or violent behavior may also be more inclined to engage in it.

Sociological Factors

Certain people are at a greater risk of engaging in violent behavior. People who have experienced a recent stress such as job loss, the death of a loved one, or a perceived humiliation are already on edge and more likely to react emotionally. Many people attend sporting events to alleviate stress. However, when a favored team loses, a person is heckled, or a person loses a significant bet associated with a game’s outcome, stress may explode into rage.

Group Dynamics

Millions of people attend sporting events every year, and the vast majority never commit a violent act. When 100,000 people pack a stadium, though, the odds are high that a number of them are under the influence of alcohol. Combine this with an emotional, hypermasculine environment and exposure to opposing sentiment, and you’ve created a recipe for fan violence. Proactive measures such as reporting inappropriate behavior immediately, limiting alcohol intake, and actively encouraging sportsmanship among peer groups, can help address an increasingly challenging threat to our enjoyment of sporting events.

References:

  1. Aguirre, B. E. (2008). Sports fan violence in North America. Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews, 37(2), 157-158. doi: 10.1177/009430610803700235
  2. Associated Press. (2012, May 31). Witnesses describe violent scene. ESPN. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/los-angeles/mlb/story/_/id/7991565/witnesses-depict-violent-scene-bryan-stow-beating
  3. Handwerk, B. (n.d.). Sports riots: The psychology of fan mayhem. National Geographic. Retrieved from http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/06/0620_050620_sportsriots.html

Cyber bullying has become more common with advances in technology. Messages can be posted on social networking websites, and pictures can be downloaded, altered, and made available to the world in seconds. Although there has been abundant research into the consequences of cyber bullying and traditional bullying, little has been done to determine which type may cause more psychological damage. It is well established that bullying itself—the act of terrorizing, intimidating, and ridiculing another through verbal or physical acts—can have numerous deleterious effects.

Those who endure bullying are at increased risk for internalizing problems such as anxiety, depression, and suicide ideation. Understanding how each type of bullying impacts young people is of critical importance in order to target those most vulnerable and help them deal with the ramifications. To get a better idea of the effects of cyber bullying in comparison to traditional bullying, Sheri Bauman of the University of Arizona’s College of Education recently conducted a study asking college students to rate their levels of distress based on hypothetical cyber and traditional bullying scenarios. The scenarios were similar in nature and differed only in delivery.

Bauman discovered that three main bullying themes emerged, including generalized bullying, name calling, and sexual victimization through explicit sexual images. Although the female participants reported higher levels of distress for all three types of bullying, the method of delivery did not impact emotional response. Specifically, although their responses varied by bullying scenario, all participants reported similar distress levels whether the bullying event was traditional in nature or cyber bullying.

However, Bauman found that one type of bullying was the most distressing. “We … found that bullying with sexual material, whether conventionally or by technological methods, is the most upsetting kind of incident to targets,” she said. This was especially true for female participants. Those with a history of victimization had higher distress than those without. In sum, Bauman believes that these findings demonstrate that it may not be the delivery method of bullying behavior that is most detrimental to young people, but rather the content of the message conveyed.

Reference:
Bauman, S., Newman, M. L. (2012). Testing assumptions about cyber bullying: Perceived distress associated with acts of conventional and cyber bullying. Psychology of Violence. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0029867

Play therapy is widely recognized as an effective therapeutic approach for children who are unable or unwilling to communicate their psychological distress. Elementary-aged children represent an especially vulnerable segment of the population when it comes to mental health barriers. First, it is during these formative years that behavior patterns are set. Children who have psychological problems early on tend to have higher rates of substance misuse, aggression, risk-taking behavior, and academic challenges than their peers. Additionally, many young children who have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress, autism, or other difficulties may have significant academic challenges and can benefit greatly from effective and meaningful in-school therapy.

But believing in the viability of play therapy and delivering it are two different things. Many school counselors report significant barriers to play therapy. Christine Ebrahim of the Department of Counseling at Loyola University in New York wanted to take a closer look at the barriers that counselors faced and how they overcame them. Ebrahim enlisted 359 elementary school counselors from the American School Counselor Association and had them complete online surveys regarding barriers to play therapy. The participants reported barriers such as time, space allocation, financial resources, and administrative and parental support. However, nearly all the counselors who cited these obstacles also described how they overcame them. For instance, they used their own money for supplies when they could not get funding, moved sessions to alternative locations when space was limited, and provided education about the benefits of play therapy when administrative and parental support was lacking.

One barrier was more difficult to surmount: the limited availability of play therapy training. “In looking at the data, most counselors identified specifically a lack of training as their primary problem,” Ebrahim said. Play therapy courses are not part of the curriculum at all colleges. Therefore, counselors are forced to learn through textbooks or online, or they must pay for training out of their own pockets. These results are promising in that they suggest that counselors are willing to do whatever it takes to offer play therapy to students in need. However, Ebrahim believes the findings clearly demonstrate that elementary school counselors are in desperate need of more professional play therapy training.

Reference:
Ebrahim, C., Steen, R. L., Paradise, L. (2012). Overcoming school counselors’ barriers to play therapy. International Journal of Play Therapy. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0029791

Woman looking out train window

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is a comprehensive, evidence-based treatment approach used to treat individuals with a wide variety of issues, including relationship conflict, anxiety, depression, bipolar, self-injury, eating issues, and substance abuse. Developed in the 1980s by psychologist Marsha M. Linehan for the treatment of borderline personality disorder and chronic suicidality, this method has since been adapted and utilized to help clients with much less severe issues. The therapy can help clients who exhibit extreme emotional reactions, helping them develop self-acceptance while also learning coping skills to better regulate their emotions and handle distress. DBT uses both individual therapy sessions and group skills training, as well as telephone coaching between sessions.

The DBT model combines a behavioral therapy approach with eastern mindfulness practices. In one sense, the term dialectical refers to the goal of synthesizing the extreme opposites inherent in the rigid “black and white” thinking of many clients who have trouble regulating their emotions. “Dialectical” also applies to the core DBT principle of practicing acceptance strategies while implementing change strategies, in the process of reducing and modifying self-destructive behaviors.

This type of therapy is very support-oriented; it helps clients identify their strengths, build new skills, and increase their self-esteem. DBT focuses on cognitive issues by indentifying destructive thought patterns and replacing them with more neutral and accepting internal dialogues. It is designed to be a nonjudgmental collaboration, with the therapist and client working together to increase emotional awareness and understanding, minimize negative thought patterns and behaviors, and develop new coping and problem-solving skills.

The four modules of dialectical behavior therapy:

In the case of adolescent treatment, Dr. Alec Miller has adapted Dr. Linehan’s model to incorporate parents attending skills training groups with their teens. There is an additional module, “walking the middle path,” which focuses on helping parents and their children understand each other’s viewpoints and reduce conflict and invalidation.

The five functions:

Dialectical behavioral therapy was designed to fulfill five primary functions:

Stages of treatment:

The course of DBT generally flows through three stages:

Who can benefit:

Though DBT originally was developed to treat more severe issues, such as borderline personality disorder, suicidal behaviors, and self-harm, the treatment has become a widely respected method for treating clients who exhibit the following, much milder traits and issues:

Dialectical behavior therapy has proven to be a very effective tool to help people manage intense emotions, change negative thought patterns, and decrease self-destructive behaviors. Individual therapy sessions focus on current detrimental behaviors in the client’s life, while group sessions involve learning skills from the four modules: mindfulness, interpersonal effectiveness, distress tolerance, and emotion regulation.

It is normal for adolescents to conflict with family members, especially parents. In fact, this transition from obedient, caring, and emotionally attached child to sometimes distant, moody, and rebellious teenager is often seen as a normal stage of development. Adolescents begin to find their own identities, their own sets of friends, and their own interests during the teen years. During this exploratory period, they begin to pull away from the safety of family and assert their own independence as they start their foray into adulthood. But even though moderate conflict is viewed as relatively normal, researchers have raised questions about the effects of conflict on social functioning. In a recent study, Katherine B. Ehrlich of the Department of Psychology at the University of Maryland took this question one step further. Using a sample of 189 adolescents, Ehrlich assessed how parental conflict and peer conflict affected social functioning independently and collectively.

The participants and their two parents, mothers and fathers, were observed as they engaged in conversations about topics that caused conflict. The adolescents were then asked to detail any conflicts in their closest peer relationships. Finally, the participants’ friends were interviewed about the level of social acceptance and general behavior of the participants while in social environments. Ehrlich discovered that although conflict with parents was linked to more aggression and risk taking, this effect was significantly amplified when peer conflicts were occurring simultaneously.

It has been suggested that conflict is a catalyst for social development and that adolescents need to experience disagreements in order to learn how to engage in problem solving and adaptive stress coping strategies. However, Ehrlich believes that when there is too much conflict present in teens’ lives, their resources may become quickly depleted, thus impairing their ability to function socially. It should be noted that the results gathered in this study were only obtained from married, heterosexual parents and were not examined independently. Future work should isolate mother-child conflict and father-child conflict to capture a more in-depth look at the individual influence of each. Additionally, single-parent environments should be examined in relation to parent-child conflict and its effect on social functioning. Ehrlich added, “We encourage researchers to continue using a multimethod approach to explore the ways in which conflict across family and friend relationship contexts influences adolescent development.”

Reference:
Ehrlich, K. B., Dykas, M. J., Cassidy, J. (2012). Tipping points in adolescent adjustment: Predicting social functioning from adolescents’ conflict with parents and friends. Journal of Family Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0029868

Psychiatric nurses who work at inpatient mental health facilities interact with many different types of clients. Some may be relatively subdued and withdrawn while others may be more outgoing. Facilities designed to address the needs of the severely mentally incapacitated treat individuals with extreme cognitive and behavioral problems, and constant supervision and precaution are necessary to ensure the safety of both the clinicians and the clients. Nursing stations within these facilities are designed to provide maximum accessibility and supervision while also providing safety and security to the staff members. Some stations are designed with glass barriers and locked doors and others are built with no walls or windows, allowing both the staff members and clients open access.

Kelly Southard, the Quality Outcomes Coordinator at the Cone Behavioral Health Hospital in Greensboro, North Carolina, recently conducted a study to determine how each type of nursing station design affected therapeutic outcomes. For her study, Southard assessed 25 nurses and 81 clients in an acute psychiatric unit of a hospital before the nursing station was renovated and after. Prior to renovation, the nursing station was closed and had window and door barriers. The nursing station was only modestly renovated with new paint and countertops and removal of the window and door.

Southard found no significant differences in the perceptions of the ward environment after the renovation compared to before the renovation. The staff members and the clients did not report an increase in therapeutic ambiance as a result of having an open nursing station. However, many clients did comment that they felt that that the nurses were more accessible in the open station. Another interesting finding and one that is of concern to staff members charged with the care of high-risk clients was that the open station did not increase the level of aggression or violence on the ward. In contrast, the staff members discovered that the clients actually exhibited less aggression and anger after the renovations. Southard added, “Although more research is needed, these desired trends could be related to nursing staff being more readily available to better meet patients’ needs.”

Reference:
Southard, K., Jarrell, A., Shattell, M. M., McCoy, T. P., Bartlett, R. (2012). Enclosed versus open nursing stations in adult acute care psychiatric settings: Does the design affect the therapeutic milieu? Journal of Psychosocial Nursing & Mental Health Services, 50.5, 28-34.

Children who are enrolled in public schools in low-income communities are at a disadvantage both academically and psychologically. These children experience elevated rates of mental health problems due to their environments, family structures, and financial insecurity. At school, their opportunities are restricted as a result of a less than adequate learning environment, minimal resources, and external factors such as increased drug use and violence. All of these factors contribute to diminished behavioral regulation, loss of motivation, and poor academic achievement. Although there are many programs designed to address these issues in urban public schools, few have had substantial success. Obstacles such as feasibility, accessibility, funding, and implementation have prevented them from achieving success. Additionally, the majority of programs are aimed at meeting the needs of the students as a whole, and do not consider the needs of the teachers and children with disabilities.

BRIDGE, Bridging Mental Health and Education in Urban Schools, is a coaching and consultation program that was designed by a team of researchers and created to address all of these issues in urban elementary schools. To test its viability, one of the creators, Elise Cappella of the Department of Applied Psychology at New York University, led a study using 36 classrooms from five different elementary schools in urban communities. After a brief intervention, Cappella and her colleagues saw results.

BRIDGE was directly responsible for increasing emotional support in the classrooms, which gave the children a feeling of security and improved behavioral regulation. The students felt more confident and saw their teacher as an ally, which directly impacted their motivation for success. Overall, the students exceeded the academic, social, and emotional levels of their peers as a result of the teachers’ participation in BRIDGE. Cappella noted that one significant difference between BRIDGE and other programs is the fact that BRIDGE is delivered to teachers by a variety of mental health professionals. This factor makes BRIDGE a program that can be portable, flexible, and easily administered. Teachers are coached in such a way that they become empowered with valuable resources that help bridge the gap often found between students and teachers in disadvantaged school systems. Cappella added, “It is encouraging that a consultation and coaching component of mental health practice based on actual interactions in the elementary classroom and effective strategies to improve these interactions promotes children’s functioning across domains in urban schools.”

Reference:
Cappella, E., Hamre, B. K., Kim, H. Y., Henry, D. B., Frazier, S. L., Atkins, M. S., & Schoenwald, S. K. (2012). Teacher consultation and coaching within mental health practice: classroom and child effects in urban elementary schools. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0027725

Autism is the general term for a spectrum of developmental disorders that begin in early childhood. People with this disorder may have difficulty socializing, understanding emotional cues, or functioning in daily life. People with autism are not, as was once thought, intellectually impaired. In fact, many children and adults with autistic disorder show remarkably high intelligence in a variety of areas. Despite years of research, scientists are still not able to explain what causes autism, much less develop preventative measures or cures. The best approaches we have for helping those with autism are therapy and behavioral counseling. The goal of such therapy is to keep behavioral symptoms under control and improve the overall quality of life.

Children with autism show different signs and symptoms. Some are completely withdrawn, seemingly trapped in their own consciousness. Others are very outgoing but oblivious to the social or emotional needs of those around them. Among all behavioral symptoms, aggression towards oneself and others is the most troubling. In two controlled trials, the antipsychotic medication Abilify (aripiprazole) was shown to significantly reduce aggressive outbursts and mood variability in children aged 6 to 17 years.

In most instances, Abilify represents a good choice for modifying aggressive behavior. Adverse side effects reported from the trials included sedation, fatigue, and vomiting. These side effects typically occurred in the first week or two of taking the medication and faded with time. About 10% of patients in the trials discontinued Abilify because of adverse effects, compared with 7% for placebo. In the long term, the most commonly observed side effect was weight gain, which also plateaued after several weeks. Physical activity and a well-managed diet may offset some of this weight gain. In a 52-week trial, the effectiveness of Abilify at reducing irritability appeared unchanged. This finding is encouraging, as the benefits of some psychotropic drugs have been shown to diminish after prolonged use.

Stabilizing the emotional states of children with autism is an important goal for therapists and parents. When the child is calm and responsive, talk therapy and other interactive activities can be more meaningful and effective. Aggressive outbursts and irritability lead to a poor quality of life for the child with autism. Although a cure may still be a long way off, Abilify has proven that it can help improve quality of life for autistic children who exhibit anger and aggression toward themselves and others.

References
Curran, M. P. (2011). Aripiprazole in the treatment of irritability associated with autistic disorder in pediatric patients. Pediatric Drugs, 13 (3), 197-204.

With football season nearing end, emotionally charged teen boys, who are taught how to use aggression on the field, will no longer be able to use that physical outlet for their youthful frustrations. Because of the high level of violence in the sport, experts have wondered if these teens, who are encouraged to use coercion, intimidation, and other aggressive tactics during play, are more likely to engage in bullying behaviors off the field than their nonathlete peers. Nearly half of teens today report that they have been either the victim or perpetrator of bullying. And although football does not endorse bullying, players are encouraged to aspire to masculine norms and conformity. Therefore, researchers have asked, do these factors make the players more vulnerable to bullying behaviors?

To answer this question, Jesse A. Steinfeldt of the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology at Indiana University-Bloomington led a study involving 206 high school football players and looked at peer relationships, masculine conformity, bullying beliefs, and male role models. The results revealed that the football players would only accept or encourage bullying behavior if their peers did. Additionally, the players who conformed the most to masculine norms were among the most likely to bully, regardless of peer influence. Adhering and aspiring to masculine norms has been shown to negatively influence psychological well-being and can increase one’s risk for depression, sexual aggression, substance abuse, and low self-worth.

However, Steinfeldt discovered the highest risk factor for accepting bullying behaviors was having a male role model who also endorsed bullying. Specifically, the most influential male in the boys’ lives, whether it was a coach, uncle, father, or big brother, was the strongest indicator of bullying behavior. This discovery has significant implications for interventions and youth programs that target bullying. Steinfeldt said, “Thus, psychologists working with adolescent football players may want to consider bullying within the broader context, particularly the ways that traditional masculine norms are conveyed by peers and influential males within the unique context of football.” Steinfeldt also suggested that psychologists who work with teen football players might consider asking coaches and fathers to participate in the design and delivery of interventions in order to more powerfully influence the teens.

Reference:
Steinfeldt, J. A., Vaughan, E. L., LaFollette, J. R., & Steinfeldt, M. C. (2012, January 23). Bullying Among Adolescent Football Players: Role of Masculinity and Moral Atmosphere. Psychology of Men & Masculinity. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0026645

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